Why Is A Vacuum Oven Necessary For Treating Precursors? Optimize Nitrogen & Sulfur Co-Doped Carbon Synthesis

Learn why vacuum ovens are essential for precursor drying at 60 °C to prevent agglomeration and oxidation in carbon material synthesis.

What Is The Objective Of Using A High-Temperature Carbonization Furnace For Hard Carbon Synthesis? Optimize Performance

Learn how high-temperature annealing (1000-1400°C) engineers hard carbon microstructures for superior sodium-ion battery performance.

What Other Metal Alloys Benefit From Vacuum Induction Melting? Unlock Purity For Reactive Metals And Specialty Alloys

Explore how vacuum induction melting benefits reactive metals, high-purity steels, and functional alloys by eliminating contamination for superior performance.

What Is The Maximum Vacuum Level For A Low Vacuum Atmosphere Furnace? Key Specs For Industrial Heat Treatment

Learn the typical -0.1 MPa gauge pressure for low vacuum furnaces, ideal for preventing oxidation in industrial processes like brazing and sintering.

What Are The Advantages Of Using Batch Furnaces? Boost Your Process Flexibility And Precision

Discover key batch furnace benefits like process flexibility, precise temperature control, and lower initial investment for varied industrial heating needs.

What Is A Box Type Annealing Atmosphere Furnace? Master Controlled Heat Treatment For Superior Materials

Discover how a box type annealing atmosphere furnace prevents oxidation, ensures uniform heating, and enhances material quality in metal processing and advanced manufacturing.

How Does A Vacuum Induction Melting Furnace (Vim Furnace) Work? Achieve Ultra-Pure Metals With Precision Melting

Learn how vacuum induction melting furnaces use electromagnetic fields and vacuum to melt and purify metals, ideal for high-purity alloys in aerospace and medical industries.

What Is The Application Of Box Type Annealing Atmosphere Furnace In Automotive Parts Manufacturing? Boost Performance And Efficiency

Explore how box-type annealing atmosphere furnaces enhance automotive part heat treatment for strength, elasticity, and reliability in powertrain components.

What Role Does Electromagnetic Stirring Play In Vacuum Induction Melting? Enhance Alloy Quality And Efficiency

Discover how electromagnetic stirring in vacuum induction melting ensures uniform composition, accelerates refining, and improves metal cleanliness for high-performance alloys.

How Do Continuous Furnaces Enhance Production Efficiency? Boost Throughput & Cut Costs

Learn how continuous furnaces eliminate downtime, optimize energy use, and increase output for high-volume manufacturing with stable thermal zones.

What Role Does An Induction Vacuum Furnace Play In Yttrium-Modified H13 Steel? Master Precision Alloy Melting

Learn how induction vacuum furnaces ensure high-purity melting and minimize oxidation loss for Yttrium-modified H13 steel preparation.

Why Must The Deposition Of An Additional A-Si Protective Layer Over A Barrier Layer Be Completed Without Breaking Vacuum?

Learn why in-situ deposition of a-Si over barrier layers is vital to prevent oxidation and ensure resistance against aluminum erosion.

What Role Does A Vacuum Induction Furnace Play In Solid-State Hydrogen Storage? Enhance Alloy Purity And Precision

Learn how Vacuum Induction Furnaces enable the synthesis of high-purity AB5 and AB2 alloys for hydrogen storage by preventing metal oxidation.

What Role Does A Vacuum Induction Furnace Play In M2 Steel Refining? Achieve Deep Deoxidation And Purity

Learn how vacuum induction furnaces (VIF) use low pressure (35 Pa) to achieve deep deoxidation and eliminate solid inclusions in M2 high-speed steel.

What Are The Unique Advantages Of Spark Plasma Sintering (Sps)? Unlock Ultrafine Carbide Strength

Discover how SPS furnaces outperform traditional sintering by decoupling densification from grain growth for superior cemented carbide production.

What Is The Role Of High-Purity Quartz Sealed Tubes In Cvt For Bire2O6 Growth? Achieve Pure Crystal Growth

Learn how high-purity quartz tubes enable BiRe2O6 crystal growth via CVT by maintaining vacuum integrity and precise temperature gradients.

What Is The Purpose Of Using A Hydrogen-Argon Mixture For Hot-Pressing Snse? Enhance Thermoelectric Zt Efficiency

Learn how a 5% hydrogen-argon mixture acts as a reducing agent to eliminate oxygen impurities in SnSe, maximizing thermoelectric performance.

What Is A Vacuum Hot Press? Achieve Ultimate Material Purity And Density

Discover how a vacuum hot press uses heat, pressure, and vacuum to sinter and densify advanced ceramics, metals, and composites for superior properties.

What Is A Crucible Furnace And What Is It Used For? A Guide To Clean Metal Melting

Discover how a crucible furnace works, its key advantages for metal purity, and its applications for melting aluminum, brass, bronze, and high-purity alloys.

How Does A Crucible Furnace Operate? Master Indirect Heating For Pure Metal Melting

Learn how a crucible furnace uses indirect heating to melt metals without contamination. Explore its components, heat transfer, and key applications.

How Does A Refinery Furnace Work? The Engine Of Distillation For Maximum Product Yield

Discover how a refinery furnace precisely heats crude oil to drive separation into valuable fuels. Learn the key components, process, and operational trade-offs.

What Types Of Mosi2 Heating Element Shapes Are Available? Optimize Your High-Temperature Furnace Performance

Explore MoSi2 heating element shapes like U, W, L, and straight types for precise furnace integration, atmosphere control, and enhanced durability.

What Are The Common Materials Used For Heating Elements In Industrial Furnaces? Optimize Your Furnace Performance

Explore common heating element materials like NiCr, SiC, and Graphite for industrial furnaces. Learn how temperature, atmosphere, and cost impact your choice.

What Maintenance Tasks Are Required For Drop-Bottom Quench Furnaces? Ensure Peak Performance And Safety

Learn essential maintenance for drop-bottom quench furnaces, including heating, quenching, mechanical, and control systems to boost reliability and product quality.

What Are The Advantages Of Using Silicon Carbide Heating Elements? Achieve High-Temp, Clean, And Efficient Heating

Discover the benefits of silicon carbide heating elements: extreme temperature performance up to 1600°C, energy efficiency, and operational cleanliness for industrial furnaces.

Where Are Gc Type Silicon Carbide Heating Elements Extensively Used? Ideal For Glass, Chemicals, And Electronics

Discover why GC Type SiC heating elements excel in glass, chemical, and electronics manufacturing with superior thermal shock resistance and chemical stability.

What Is A Vacuum Induction Melting (Vim) Furnace And What Are Its Key Characteristics? Discover High-Purity Metal Production

Learn how VIM furnaces use vacuum and induction heating to achieve ultra-pure metals, precise alloying, and degassing for aerospace and medical applications.

How Does Induction Heating Work In A Vacuum Induction Melting Furnace? Unlock High-Purity Metal Melting

Learn how VIM furnaces use induction heating and vacuum environments to produce pure alloys for aerospace and medical applications with precise control.

What Is Vacuum Arc Melting (Var) And What Is Its Primary Purpose? Achieve Superior Metal Purity And Performance

Learn how Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) produces high-strength, clean metals for aerospace, medical, and industrial applications by removing impurities and controlling solidification.

Why Is A High-Pressure Reactor With A Ptfe Lining Required For V-Nbopo4@Rgo? Ensure Purity In Acidic Synthesis

Learn why PTFE lining is essential for V-NbOPO4@rGO synthesis to prevent corrosion from niobium pentachloride and ensure high material purity.

What Is A Vacuum Induction Furnace And How Does It Differ From Other Vacuum Sintering Furnaces? Discover The Key Differences

Learn how vacuum induction furnaces use electromagnetic induction for fast, efficient heating vs. resistance furnaces for uniform heat in vacuum sintering.

What Are The Key Components Of A Condensation System In A Vacuum Distillation Furnace? Achieve Superior Metal Vapor Separation

Learn about the essential components—condensation surface, cooling system, and multi-stage zones—for effective metal vapor separation in vacuum distillation.

Why Is Prolonged Treatment In A Vacuum Drying Oven Necessary For Sno2-Based Anodes? Ensure Reliable Electrochemical Data

Learn why 120°C vacuum drying for 12+ hours is essential to remove moisture and solvents for accurate SnO2-based anode electrochemical testing.

Why Is Ultrasonic Cleaning With Acetone Required Before Thermal Oxidation? Ensure Perfect Stainless Steel Adhesion

Learn why ultrasonic acetone cleaning is vital for thermal oxidation, removing oils and debris to ensure uniform, durable oxide layers on steel.

Why Use A Vacuum Drying Oven For Mesoporous Silica? Protect High Surface Area And Structural Integrity

Learn how vacuum drying prevents pore collapse and preserves the high surface area of mesoporous silica by minimizing capillary pressure.

Why Is A High-Precision Laboratory Press Used For Tib2-Based Composite Ceramics? Ensure Flawless Green Body Preparation

Learn why precision pre-pressing is critical for TiB2 ceramics to increase packing density, eliminate air, and prevent sintering fractures.

What Core Functions Do High-Purity Graphite Molds Perform During The Sps Of Lafeo3? Optimize Your Sintering Process

Discover how graphite molds act as heaters, containers, and pressure vessels to achieve rapid densification of LaFeO3 in Spark Plasma Sintering.

How Does A Vacuum Environment Influence The Accuracy Of Thermoelectric Performance Measurements For Taas2? Ensure Precision In Your Research

Discover how a high-vacuum environment is crucial for accurate thermoelectric measurements of TaAs2, eliminating convective heat loss for precise Seebeck and Nernst signal data.

What Role Does The Vacuum Or Atmosphere Control System Play When Processing Tnzt Alloys? Key To Biocompatible Purity

Learn how vacuum and atmosphere control systems prevent oxidation and embrittlement in TNZT alloys during Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS).

What Are The Advantages Of Using A Vacuum Drying Oven For Magnesium Slag? Preserving Sample Integrity

Discover why vacuum drying is essential for magnesium slag: prevent oxidation, preserve microstructure, and ensure accurate chemical analysis.

What Role Do Induction Furnaces Play In Imc-B Tests? Precision Melting For High-Purity Steel Simulations

Learn how induction and vacuum induction furnaces ensure chemical purity and precise alloy control for In-Situ Melting and Solidification Bending.

Why Is A Vacuum Drying Oven Preferred For Tmp Materials? Protect Porosity And Electrochemical Performance

Learn why vacuum drying ovens are essential for TMPs to prevent micropore collapse, avoid oxidation, and maintain high specific surface area.

How Does A Vacuum Annealing Furnace Contribute To Microstructural Recovery Of Ods Steel? Unlock Material Performance

Learn how vacuum annealing at 1150°C triggers static recrystallization to restore ODS steel joints and eliminate grain coarsening.

What Is The Purpose Of Using A Vacuum Drying Oven For Carbon Microspheres? Optimize Your Material Activation

Discover how vacuum drying preserves carbon microsphere integrity, prevents oxidation, and clears pores for superior chemical activation.

Why Are Industrial-Grade Drying And Crushing Equipment Necessary For Pretreatment? Optimize Chemical Reactions

Learn how precision drying and crushing to <75μm optimize surface area and reaction kinetics for zinc powder and iron oxide pretreatment.

What Role Does Chemical Vapor Deposition (Cvd) Equipment Play In The Surface Coating Of Carbon Fibers For Composites?

Learn how CVD equipment enhances carbon fibers through surface defect repair, oxidation resistance, and precise interface control for composites.

Why Is The Use Of High-Purity Graphite Crucibles Essential? Protect Tic-High Manganese Steel During Sintering

Learn why high-purity graphite is crucial for TiC-high manganese steel cermets to prevent manganese oxidation and ensure structural integrity.

What Necessary Process Conditions Does A Muffle Furnace Provide For Fruit Powder Ash Analysis? Mastering 550°C Oxidation

Learn why a 550°C oxidative environment and complete thermal decomposition are essential for accurate fruit powder ash content and mineral analysis.

Why Are Both External And Internal Thermocouples Required For Pyrolysis? Optimize Your Thermal Reaction Monitoring

Learn why dual-thermocouple monitoring is essential for pyrolysis, enabling precise tracking of heat transfer and material degradation phases.

How Does Proactive Maintenance And Calibration Benefit Dental Furnace Performance? Ensure Precision And Reliability

Learn how proactive maintenance and calibration prevent downtime, improve restoration quality, and extend furnace lifespan for dental labs.

What Are The Benefits Of Using Drop-Bottom Quench Furnaces? Achieve Superior Metallurgical Precision And Rapid Quenching

Discover the key advantages of drop-bottom quench furnaces, including rapid quenching, precise temperature control, and enhanced mechanical properties for aerospace and automotive industries.

What Temperature-Related Capabilities Make Multi Zone Tube Furnaces Valuable For Research? Unlock Precision Thermal Control

Explore how multi-zone tube furnaces enable precise temperature gradients and independent control for advanced research in materials science and CVD applications.

What Ceramic Materials Are Commonly Used For Heating Elements? Discover The Best For Your High-Temp Needs

Explore common ceramic heating elements like MoSi₂, SiC, PBN, AlN, and PTC ceramics, their temperature ranges, and applications for labs and industry.

How Is Grain Growth In Mosi2 Heating Elements Prevented? Boost Lifespan With Additive Engineering

Learn how alloying additives prevent grain growth in MoSi2 heating elements, enhancing durability and performance in high-temperature applications.

What Is The Primary Use Of Molybdenum Disilicide? Ideal For High-Temp Heating Elements

Discover how molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) serves as a key material for high-temperature heating elements, offering oxidation resistance and durability above 1500°C.

What Are The Advantages Of Using Silicon Carbide Heating Elements In Industrial Furnaces? Boost Efficiency And Durability

Discover the benefits of SiC heating elements: high-temperature operation up to 1600°C, rapid heating, chemical resistance, and long life for industrial furnaces.

How Has Molybdenum Been Used In Industrial Furnaces As A Heating Element? Unlock High-Temp Performance Up To 1900°C

Explore molybdenum's role in industrial furnaces: high-temperature capability up to 1900°C, design flexibility, and critical atmosphere requirements for optimal performance.

What Are The Key Benefits Of Molybdenum Heating Elements? Unlock Extreme-Temperature Reliability

Discover how molybdenum heating elements provide extreme temperature stability, oxidation resistance, and long service life for demanding industrial processes.

Why Is A Cycle Of Secondary Grinding And Re-Sintering Employed In Bicuseo Preparation? Achieve Peak Material Density

Learn how secondary grinding and re-sintering improve BiCuSeO density, eliminate micro-voids, and ensure stable thermoelectric performance.

What Are The Advantages Of A Vacuum Drying Oven For Photocatalyst Powders? Preserve Nano-Structure And Purity

Learn why vacuum drying is superior for photocatalysts: prevent oxidation, avoid agglomeration, and preserve active sites at lower temperatures.

How Does A High-Precision Resistance Furnace Ensure T6 Solution Treatment? Achieve Peak Alloy Strength With Kintek

Learn how temperature uniformity in box and pit furnaces ensures effective solution treatment and prevents alloy defects in T6 heat processing.

What Is The Primary Role Of A Vacuum Annealing Furnace? Optimize Alsi10Mg Lpbf Microstructure And Conductivity

Learn how vacuum annealing transforms LPBF AlSi10Mg by coarsening the silicon phase to eliminate anisotropy and boost material conductivity.

What Is The Role Of Vim And Directional Solidification In Aero-Engine Blade Substrates? Engineering Extreme Durability

Learn how VIM and directional solidification technology enhance aero-engine blade substrates through purity control and crystal structure alignment.

Why Must The Drying Process For Mxene-Coated Electrodes Be Conducted In A Vacuum Drying Oven? Key Stability Factors

Learn why vacuum drying is essential for MXene electrodes to prevent thermal oxidation, ensure adhesion, and remove solvents at safe temperatures.

Why Use Stainless Steel Or Nickel Foil Liners In Tube Furnaces? Protect Your Equipment During Koh Activation

Learn why metal foil liners are essential to prevent KOH corrosion, protect furnace heating elements, and ensure high-purity carbon activation.

What Is The Function Of A High-Temperature Heating Reactor In Opf Delignification? Unlock High-Purity Cellulose

Learn how high-temperature reactors break lignin-cellulose bonds at 170°C to extract high-purity cellulose from Oil Palm Frond (OPF) biomass.

How Does A Vacuum Drying Oven Contribute To The Structural Stability Of Silicon-Based Composite Electrode Sheets?

Learn how vacuum drying ovens enhance electrode stability by removing solvents at low temperatures to prevent oxidation and ensure strong adhesion.

Why Use A Thermal Etching Furnace For Uranium Dioxide Sem Analysis? Essential Grain Boundary Revelation

Learn how thermal etching furnaces reveal grain boundaries in manganese-doped uranium dioxide for precise SEM microstructural analysis and kinetics.

What Is The Necessity Of Using A Vacuum Drying Oven For The 70 °C Treatment Of Synthesized Tf-Cof? Essential Guide

Learn why vacuum drying at 70 °C is critical for TF-COF synthesis to ensure complete solvent removal without compromising structural integrity.

What Are The Benefits Of Using A Vacuum Drying Oven For Sensitive Ceramic Materials? Unlock Unmatched Material Purity

Discover how vacuum drying prevents oxidation, reduces thermal stress, and eliminates hard agglomeration in sensitive ceramic raw materials.

What Is The Working Principle Of A Vacuum Carburizing Furnace? Achieve Superior Surface Hardening For Steel Parts

Learn how vacuum carburizing furnaces use boost and diffuse cycles in a vacuum to create hard, wear-resistant steel surfaces with precise control and no oxidation.

What Are The Specific Applications Of A Vacuum Induction Melting Furnace In Jewelry Manufacturing? Achieve Flawless High-Purity Alloys

Discover how vacuum induction melting furnaces enable precise alloying, defect-free casting of reactive metals, and consistent quality in high-end jewelry production.

What Are The Key Differences Between Vim And Am Furnaces? Choose The Right Melting Technology For Your Metals

Explore VIM vs. Arc Melting differences: heating methods, vacuum roles, and applications for pure alloys or reactive metals. Make informed decisions.

How Can Fixturing Improve The Cvd Coating Process? Boost Uniformity And Efficiency In Your Lab

Learn how proper fixturing in CVD ensures uniform coating, prevents damage, and increases throughput for reliable, high-quality results.

What Are The Advantages Of A Vertical/Bottom Loading Vacuum Furnace? Save Space And Boost Precision

Discover how vertical/bottom loading vacuum furnaces reduce floor space, ensure uniform heating, and improve material quality for high-performance labs.

What Are The Primary Uses Of Quartz Tubes In Laboratory Settings? Essential For High-Temperature Material Processing

Explore the key uses of quartz tubes in labs for high-temperature processes like annealing and CVD, offering thermal stability, purity, and controlled atmospheres.

What Are Some Industrial Applications Of Low Vacuum Atmosphere Furnaces? Boost Efficiency In Heat Treatment Processes

Explore how low vacuum furnaces enable brazing, annealing, and sintering in automotive, tool, and electronics industries with cost-effective, oxidation-free results.

What Are The Uses Of Box Type Electric Furnaces In Chemical Engineering? Unlock Precise Heat Control For Your Lab

Explore how box-type electric furnaces enable precise thermal control for chemical reactions, pyrolysis, and material synthesis in chemical engineering labs.

How Does The Box Type Annealing Atmosphere Furnace Improve Production Efficiency? Boost Throughput And Cut Costs

Learn how box-type annealing furnaces reduce cycle times by 30-50%, lower energy use, and enhance operational efficiency for flexible production.

What Is The Purpose Of Using A Vacuum Drying Oven For Coated Carbon Cloth? Protect Substrates & Optimize Adhesion

Learn how vacuum drying ovens prevent thermal oxidation and ensure solvent removal for superior carbon cloth electrode preparation.

What Are The Advantages Of Using A Vacuum Drying Oven For Precursors On Carbon Paper? Maximize Material Performance

Learn how vacuum drying prevents particle agglomeration and oxidation while preserving the 3D pore structure of carbon paper precursors.

What Is The Function Of High-Vacuum Encapsulated Quartz Tubes For Ce2(Fe, Co)17? Ensure Phase Purity And Stability

Learn how high-vacuum quartz tubes prevent oxidation and enable critical atomic rearrangement during the long-term heat treatment of Ce2(Fe, Co)17.

Why Is The Vacuum Reaction Chamber Critical For Pecvd On Titanium Alloys? Precision Control For Superior Coatings

Learn how vacuum chambers in PECVD ensure high-purity, uniform coatings on titanium alloys by preventing atmospheric contamination and oxidation.

What Is The Importance Of The Feeding System And Ore Distributing Device? Unlock Peak Oil Shale Retorting Efficiency

Learn how feeding systems and ore distributing devices regulate porosity, gas flow, and heat transfer to maximize oil shale retorting yields.

What Are The Advantages Of Using A Spark Plasma Sintering (Sps) System For Uhtcs? Master Rapid Densification

Unlock the benefits of SPS for Ultra-High Temperature Ceramics: rapid densification, lower temperatures, and superior microstructural control.

What Is The Primary Function Of A Laboratory Blast Drying Oven? Mastering Coconut Husk Biochar Preparation

Learn why blast drying ovens are critical for coconut husk biochar: eliminating moisture, preventing pore collapse, and stabilizing pyrolysis.

What Advantages Do Rotary Furnaces Have Over Traditional Equipment Like Mesh Belt Furnaces? Achieve Superior Uniformity And Efficiency

Discover how rotary furnaces outperform mesh belt furnaces with superior temperature uniformity, enhanced heat transfer, and precise process control for powders and granules.

What Limitation Do Rotary Furnaces Share With Induction Furnaces? Limited Refining Capacity For Clean Materials

Discover why both rotary and induction furnaces have limited refining capacity, requiring clean, pre-processed charges for optimal performance.

What Types Of Materials Can Be Processed In A Rotary Tube Furnace? Discover Ideal Materials For High-Temp Processing

Learn about materials suitable for rotary tube furnaces, including powders, ceramics, and metals, with tips on flowability and temperature compatibility.

What Are The Key Components Of A Vacuum Induction Melting (Vim) Furnace? Master High-Purity Metal Processing

Learn the essential components of VIM furnaces, including vacuum systems and induction coils, for achieving superior metal purity and control in metallurgy.

What Types Of Materials Are Suitable For Processing In Rotary Tube Furnaces? Ideal For Free-Flowing Powders And Granules

Discover materials like metal powders, ceramics, and nanomaterials suitable for rotary tube furnaces, ensuring uniform heat treatment and high efficiency.

Why Is The Vacuum Degassing Process Critical When Refining Liquid H13 Tool Steel? Ensure Purity And Durability

Learn why vacuum degassing is vital for H13 tool steel, focusing on hydrogen removal, inclusion control, and optimizing material structural integrity.

Why Use A Vacuum Diffusion Annealing Furnace For Zircaloy-4? Ensure Uniformity & Prevent Oxidation

Learn how vacuum diffusion annealing furnaces homogenize hydrogen in Zircaloy-4 while protecting samples from secondary oxidation.

What Is The Function Of A Vacuum Induction Furnace? Enhancing Purity In Silicon Steel Melting

Learn how vacuum induction furnaces optimize non-oriented silicon steel through gas removal, inclusion control, and precise chemical homogeneity.

How Does A Vacuum Oven Contribute To Processing Solid Residues In Biomass Fractionation? Ensure Sample Integrity

Learn how vacuum ovens preserve biomass residues through low-temperature drying, preventing degradation and ensuring chemical stability for analysis.

Why Is A Two-Step Cooling System Necessary For Titanium Hydrogenation? Protect Your Alloy’s Integrity

Learn why a two-step cooling process with high-purity argon is critical to preventing oxidation and controlling phase distribution in titanium alloys.

What Environmental Conditions Do Vacuum Systems And Quartz Tubes Provide? Optimize Zns Nanobelt Synthesis

Learn how vacuum systems and quartz tubes ensure oxygen-free environments and precise vapor transport for high-quality ZnS nanobelt synthesis.

What Are The Technical Advantages Of Spark Plasma Sintering (Sps) For Maraging Steel? Achieve Rapid Densification

Discover how SPS technology enables rapid densification and grain growth inhibition for maraging steel with superior mechanical properties.

Why Is A Vacuum Pump Used To Evacuate The Thermal Modification Chamber? Ensure Safety And Material Integrity

Learn why evacuating oxygen to 0.2 bar is critical for preventing combustion and ensuring high-quality wood thermal modification results.

How Does A Precision Dynamic Vacuum Annealing Furnace Facilitate Phase Transformation? Boost Basnf4 Electrolyte Performance

Learn how dynamic vacuum annealing drives the cubic-to-tetragonal phase shift in BaSnF4 to maximize ionic conductivity for solid-state electrolytes.