What Are The Specific Calcination Requirements For A Tubular Resistance Furnace For Ncm622? Expert Synthesis Guide

Master NCM622 synthesis: Discover why 850°C for 12 hours in continuous oxygen is critical for processing low-grade lithium into cathode materials.

Why Is A Vacuum Or Inert Gas System Required For Silicon Nitride Sintering? Prevent Material Decomposition Now

Learn why vacuum and high-purity inert gas systems are essential to prevent decomposition and oxidation during silicon nitride ceramic sintering.

What Are The Important Safety Precautions When Using A Box Type Electric Furnace? Ensure Safe And Efficient Operation

Learn key safety steps for box-type electric furnaces, including pre-use checks, electrical safety, and monitoring to prevent accidents and ensure reliability.

What Types Of Components Are Typically Processed Using Vacuum Carburizing? Boost Durability For Gears, Shafts, And More

Learn about vacuum carburizing for high-performance parts like gears and bearings, enhancing surface hardness and core toughness for reliability.

What Are The Key Benefits Of Vacuum Carburizing? Achieve Precision, Low Distortion, And Eco-Friendly Hardening

Discover vacuum carburizing benefits: superior control, minimal distortion, high consistency, and environmental friendliness for enhanced part quality and manufacturing efficiency.

What Properties Of A Metal Can Be Altered Through Vacuum Heat Treating? Enhance Strength, Ductility, And Corrosion Resistance

Discover how vacuum heat treating alters metal properties like hardness, strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance for superior performance in critical applications.

How Does A Three-Zone Furnace Improve Process Control? Achieve Precise Temperature Uniformity And Gradients

Discover how three-zone furnaces enhance process control with independent heating zones for superior uniformity, custom thermal profiles, and repeatable results.

How Do Quartz Tube Furnaces Support Controlled Atmosphere Experiments? Master Precise Material Synthesis

Learn how quartz tube furnaces enable controlled atmosphere experiments for high-purity material synthesis, oxidation prevention, and advanced processing.

What Is The Contamination Risk In Low Vacuum Versus High Vacuum Furnaces? Balance Purity, Cost, And Throughput

Compare contamination risks in low vs. high vacuum furnaces. Learn how vacuum levels affect material purity, cost, and cycle times for optimal heat treatment.

What Is The Significance Of Box Type Electric Furnaces In Metal Melting? Precision Control For Small-Scale Metallurgy

Explore the role of box-type electric furnaces in metal melting for labs, research, and small-batch production, highlighting precision, atmosphere control, and alloy development.

How Do Process Speeds Compare Between Low Vacuum And High Vacuum Furnaces? Uncover The Speed Vs. Purity Trade-Off

Learn how low vacuum furnaces offer faster process speeds than high vacuum ones, with key differences in pump-down time, cost, and application suitability.

What Is A Batch Furnace And How Does It Operate? Master Precision Heat Treatment For Diverse Applications

Learn how batch furnaces provide superior process control, flexibility, and atmosphere integrity for low-volume, high-mix industrial heat treatment.

What Are The Primary Benefits Of Using A Split Tube Furnace? Enhance Lab Efficiency With Unmatched Flexibility

Discover split tube furnace benefits: easy sample access, rapid cooling, and controlled atmospheres for materials science and chemistry labs.

Can An Alumina Tube Furnace Be Used For Controlled Atmosphere Experiments? Yes, For Precise High-Temperature Control.

Learn how alumina tube furnaces enable controlled atmosphere experiments with high-temperature stability and inert gas handling for reliable results.

What Types Of Atmosphere Control Does A Cvd Tube Furnace Support? Master Vacuum And Gas Control For Precision

Explore CVD tube furnace atmosphere control: vacuum for purity and gas atmospheres like inert or reactive for precise material synthesis and protection.

How Are Box Type Resistance Furnaces Used In Metallic Material R&D? Unlock Precise Heat Treatment And Alloy Development

Explore how box furnaces enable precise heat treatment, alloy prototyping, and phase studies in metal R&D for enhanced material properties and innovation.

Why Are Induction Furnaces Preferred For Copper Melting Applications? Achieve High Efficiency And Superior Quality

Discover how induction furnaces offer precise temperature control, reduced oxidation, and high purity for efficient copper melting, saving energy and costs.

Why Is A Precision-Controlled Muffle Furnace Necessary For Ruo2/G-C3N4 Heat Treatment? Ensure Perfect Catalysts

Learn why 520°C precision control is vital for RuO2/g-C3N4 composites to ensure secure anchoring and optimized heterojunction interfaces.

How Does A Tube Resistance Furnace Contribute To Converting Industrial Sludge Into High-Activity Geopolymer Precursors?

Learn how tube resistance furnaces use 800°C thermal activation to convert industrial sludge into reactive, high-value geopolymer precursors.

What Is The Objective Of Calcining Catalyst Precursors? Achieve Peak Stability With Rotary Tube Furnaces

Learn why calcining catalyst precursors at 800°C is vital for P123 removal, MgAl2O4 spinel formation, and structural stabilization.

How Does The Annealing Process In A High-Temperature Furnace Modify Mos2? Optimize Thermoelectric Performance

Learn how high-temperature annealing refines MoS2 morphology, boosts carrier mobility, and maximizes thermoelectric power factor through grain growth.

What Is The Primary Purpose Of Using A Small Controlled Electric Furnace? Optimize Black Liquor Pyrolysis For Research

Learn how controlled electric furnaces produce precise black liquor char for accurate gasification kinetics and thermal decomposition research.

Why Is A High-Temperature Muffle Furnace Required For Ash Determination? Ensure Precise Edible Mushroom Analysis

Learn why a muffle furnace (580°C-600°C) is essential for ash determination in mushrooms to ensure complete oxidation and accurate mineral data.

What Is The Importance Of A Water-Cooled Injector In Dtf Experiments? Ensure Precise Ignition Delay Measurement

Learn how water-cooled injectors provide an exact 'Time Zero' and prevent premature pyrolysis to ensure accurate ignition delay data in DTF.

What Is The Primary Purpose Of Using A Tube Reduction Furnace? Achieve High-Purity Fe-Cu Sintering

Learn how tube reduction furnaces remove oxide layers from Fe-Cu powders to ensure superior bonding and material integrity during sintering.

Why Use A High-Temp Box Resistance Furnace For Ca2.5Ag0.3Sm0.2Co4O9 Sintering? Ensure Phase Purity And Alignment

Learn why a high-temperature box furnace is essential for sintering Ca2.5Ag0.3Sm0.2Co4O9 ceramics to achieve optimal phase purity and grain growth.

Why Is An Induction Furnace Equipped With A Graphite Susceptor Necessary? Achieving Precision For Electrical Steel

Learn why graphite susceptors are essential for measuring high-silicon electrical steel by eliminating electromagnetic stirring and ensuring a quiescent melt.

What Are The Essential Functional Requirements For A Tube Furnace Used In The Biomass Activated Carbon Activation Process?

Discover the critical functional requirements for biomass activation, including 1050°C control, inert gas isolation, and programmable profiles.

Why Is A Mixture Of Argon (Ar) And Hydrogen (H2) Required During Beryl Heat Treatment? Master Color Transformation

Learn how the Argon-Hydrogen gas mixture enables the reduction of iron in beryl to achieve vivid blue saturation safely and effectively.

What Environmental Benefits Do Continuous Vacuum Furnaces Provide? Achieve Zero Emissions And High Efficiency

Discover how continuous vacuum furnaces eliminate emissions, hazardous waste, and boost energy efficiency for sustainable heat treatment processes.

How Does Vacuum Carburizing Improve Surface Quality? Achieve Clean, High-Strength Parts

Learn how vacuum carburizing eliminates oxidation and decarburization for superior surface finish, enhanced fatigue strength, and reduced part distortion.

How Is Furnace Brazing Utilized In The Electronics And Semiconductor Industries? Master Precision Joining For High-Reliability Components

Discover how furnace brazing creates hermetic seals and reliable joints for sensitive electronics and semiconductors in a controlled, contamination-free environment.

How Are Vacuum Furnaces Used In The Aerospace Industry? Enhance Safety And Performance In Aviation

Discover how vacuum furnaces heat-treat aerospace materials like titanium and superalloys for critical components in engines and airframes, ensuring strength and purity.

What Are The Key Components Of A Vacuum Annealing Furnace? Master The Core For Superior Material Processing

Explore the essential parts of a vacuum annealing furnace, including the chamber, vacuum, heating, cooling, and control systems, for precise heat treatment.

What Are The Key Uses Of Vacuum Annealing Furnaces? Achieve Superior Material Integrity And Purity

Discover how vacuum annealing furnaces prevent oxidation, enhance material properties, and ensure uniform heating for metals, electronics, and aerospace applications.

How Does A High-Precision Temperature Control System Contribute To Nmc Synthesis? Precision In Xrd In-Situ Experiments

Learn how high-precision temperature control and thermocouple feedback enable precise mapping of NMC synthesis pathways during in-situ XRD.

What Is The Primary Application Of Vacuum Heat Treating Furnaces In Aerospace? Enhance Component Performance With Precision

Explore how vacuum heat treating furnaces process titanium, aluminum, and nickel alloys for aerospace, ensuring strength, fatigue resistance, and contamination-free results.

What Is The Purpose Of Performing High-Temperature Degassing In A Vacuum Furnace Before The Hot Pressing Of Al-Cu Alloy Powders? Ensure Maximum Density And Strength

Learn why high-temperature degassing is critical for removing impurities from Al-Cu powders to prevent porosity and achieve near-theoretical density in hot pressing.

What Is The Role Of High-Purity Argon Gas In Ultrafine Magnesium Powder Production? Control Particle Size & Purity

Learn how high-purity argon gas controls particle size and ensures purity in ultrafine magnesium powder production via the evaporation-condensation method.

What Are The Classifications Of Operating Pressures Used In Vacuum Heat Treatment? Optimize Your Process For Quality And Efficiency

Learn about rough, fine, and high vacuum classifications in heat treatment to prevent oxidation, ensure clean finishes, and select the right pressure for your materials.

What Types Of Heat Treatment Processes Are Performed In Vacuum Furnaces? Achieve Superior Metallurgical Control And Quality

Explore vacuum furnace heat treatments like annealing, hardening, and brazing for contamination-free processes, superior material properties, and minimal distortion.

How Does The Production Efficiency Of Vacuum Furnaces Compare To Conventional Furnaces? Optimize Your Heat Treatment Process

Compare vacuum vs. conventional furnace efficiency: vacuum excels in quality and eliminates rework, while conventional offers speed for non-sensitive materials.

What Are The Classifications Of Cvd Based On Vapor Characteristics? Optimize Your Thin Film Deposition Process

Explore CVD classifications like AACVD and DLICVD for precise precursor delivery, enhancing film quality and process efficiency in material science.

What Biomedical Applications Do Cvd Furnaces Have? Enhance Implant Safety And Drug Delivery

Explore how CVD furnaces enable biocompatible coatings, antibacterial properties, and advanced drug delivery systems for medical implants and biomaterials.

What Nanomaterials Can Be Synthesized Using Cvd Furnaces? Unlock Versatile Nanoscale Material Creation

Explore how CVD furnaces synthesize nanomaterials like graphene, carbon nanotubes, and nanoparticles for electronics, catalysis, and coatings.

How Does A Horizontal Electric Furnace Ensure Precise Thermal Control? Achieve Superior Temperature Stability For Your Lab

Learn how PID controllers, electric heating elements, and insulation in horizontal electric furnaces deliver precise thermal control for sensitive processes.

What Are The Main Differences Between Vacuum Chambers And Vacuum Furnaces? Choose The Right Tool For Your Lab

Learn the key distinctions between vacuum chambers for testing and vacuum furnaces for high-temperature processing to optimize your lab's efficiency and results.

How Is A Laboratory Tube Furnace Utilized In The Thermal Shock Reduction Process To Produce Rgo?

Learn how laboratory tube furnaces utilize thermal shock at 1050°C to exfoliate graphite oxide into high-quality reduced graphene oxide (RGO).

What Is The Function Of A Horizontal Hot-Wall Quartz Tube Cvd System? Expert Insights On Superlattice Fabrication

Learn how horizontal hot-wall CVD systems enable lateral epitaxial growth of MoS2-MoSe2 superlattices for high-resolution SAS-ALD surface templates.

What Role Does Fluorination Process Equipment Play In The Pretreatment Of Lif-Bef2 Salts? Ensure High-Purity Substrates

Learn how fluorination equipment purifies LiF-BeF2 salts by removing oxides and hydroxides to ensure accurate thermophysical property measurements.

How Does Precise Temperature Control In A High-Temp Induction Furnace Influence Al-2024 Melting For Composites?

Learn how maintaining a 695°C-725°C window in induction furnaces ensures uniform melting and particle integration for AL-2024 composite fabrication.

Why Is The Temperature Control Of A High-Precision Resistance Furnace Essential For B4C/Al Composites? Gain Control

Learn how precise temperature control drives Al2O3 phase transformations in B4C/Al composites to enhance strength and thermal conductivity.

What Is The Role Of A Muffle Furnace In Cealox/Nio/Ni-Foam Catalyst Production? Master Precision Calcination

Learn how muffle furnaces drive phase transformation and oxidation at 400°C to create stable, high-performance CeAlOx/NiO/Ni-foam catalysts.

What Is The Significance Of Using A Laboratory Electric Furnace For The Quenching And Tempering Of Hull Steel? Achieve Precise Microstructure Control

Learn how laboratory electric furnaces optimize medium-manganese hull steel through precise thermal regulation of quenching and tempering phases.

How Does A High-Pressure Gas Quenching System Maintain Dimensional Stability? Mastering Uniform Cooling Precision

Learn how high-pressure gas quenching in vacuum furnaces eliminates thermal shock and distortion to protect complex workpiece geometries.

What Is The Purpose Of Performing High-Temperature Thermal Treatment For Bsno Thin Films? Boost Device Sensitivity

Learn how 900°C rapid annealing optimizes Boron Tin Oxide (BSnO) thin films by repairing lattice defects and enhancing response sensitivity.

Why Is A Precision Muffle Furnace Used For Gradient Heating During The Synthesis Of Doped Tungsten Diselenide (Wse2)?

Master WSe2 synthesis: learn how precision muffle furnaces manage vapor pressure and chemical uniformity through critical gradient heating stages.

Why Is Temperature Control Precision Critical For A Sample Heating Furnace? Master Ti-V-Cr Alloy Oxidation Kinetics

Learn why +/- 0.5 °C precision is vital in Ti-V-Cr oxidation testing to ensure accurate Arrhenius calculations and reliable k_p rate constants.

Why Must Calcination Equipment Be Used To Pre-Treat Zsm-5 Zeolite? Ensure Accurate Voc Adsorption Testing

Learn why pre-treating ZSM-5 zeolite at 550 °C is essential to remove moisture and impurities for accurate VOC static adsorption performance tests.

What Specific Functions Must An Industrial Electric Furnace Perform For Concrete Fire Testing? Master Thermal Cycles

Learn the 3 critical functions of furnaces for concrete fire testing: 0.5°C/min ramp rates, precise plateaus, and 2-hour thermal dwell times.

What Conditions Does A Continuous Flow Fixed-Bed Quartz Reactor Provide? Master Co Oxidation Testing With Cobalt Oxide

Learn how continuous flow fixed-bed quartz reactors provide precise gas dynamics and thermal control for CO oxidation catalyst performance testing.

What Are The Advantages Of Graphite Furnace? Achieve Unmatched High-Temperature Performance

Discover the key benefits of graphite furnaces: rapid heating, precise temperature control, superior uniformity, and a chemically inert environment for sensitive applications.

What Is The Purpose Of Pfm Furnaces? Achieve Durable, Aesthetic Dental Restorations

Discover how PFM furnaces fuse porcelain to metal for strong, beautiful dental crowns and bridges with precise temperature and vacuum control.

How Is The Problem Of Surface Oxidation And Decarburization Addressed In Conventional Heat Treatment? Learn The Machining Allowance Method

Discover how conventional heat treatment uses machining allowances to manage surface oxidation and decarburization, ensuring part integrity with cost-effective solutions.

Why Are Electric Furnaces Considered A Quieter Heating Option? Silent Operation Explained

Discover why electric furnaces are quieter than gas or oil models. Learn how their simple, combustion-free design eliminates noise from ignition, burners, and metal expansion.

What Role Does A Laboratory Vacuum Annealing Furnace Play In Ion-Implanted Scn Thin Films? Restore Lattice Integrity

Learn how vacuum annealing furnaces over 875 K drive defect migration and lattice recovery in ScN thin films for electrical analysis.

What Role Does An Industrial Muffle Furnace Play In The Calcination Of Y211? Master Single-Phase Synthesis

Learn how industrial muffle furnaces optimize Y2BaCuO5 (Y211) production through precise 900°C thermal management and phase-control techniques.

Why Use High-Precision Gas Flow Control For Argon In Oil Migration Simulations? Achieve Re=215 Accuracy

Learn how high-precision flow control ensures fluid dynamic similarity (Re=215) for accurate oil migration and gas purification simulations.

What Is The Function Of A Tube Reactor During The Reduction Process Of Siderite Ore? Optimize Your Metallization Process

Learn how tube reactors facilitate siderite ore reduction through hydrogen atmosphere control, oxygen isolation, and precise thermal regulation.

What Role Does A High-Vacuum Or Low-Oxygen Furnace Play In Nicocraly Pre-Oxidation? Master Selective Oxidation Control

Learn how high-vacuum furnaces enable selective oxidation of aluminum on NiCoCrAlY, creating dense alpha-alumina barriers for material longevity.

What Is The Function Of An Industrial Muffle Furnace In G-C3N4 Synthesis? Optimize Your Thermal Polymerization

Learn how industrial muffle furnaces drive the thermal polymerization of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) through precise 550 °C temperature control.

What Is The Role Of A Vertical Tube Resistance Furnace In Weee And Copper Co-Smelting? Precision Smelting Solutions

Learn how vertical tube resistance furnaces enable precise temperature and atmosphere control for WEEE and copper concentrate co-smelting research.

What Is The Necessity Of The Annealing Process Using A Muffle Furnace For Znco2O4? Boost Phase Purity And Conductivity

Learn why muffle furnace annealing is vital for ZnCo2O4 powders to achieve spinel-structure purity and superior electrochemical performance.

What Is The Primary Function Of A Vacuum Sealed Tube Furnace In Black Phosphorus Synthesis? Master Phase Transformation

Learn how vacuum sealed tube furnaces enable black phosphorus synthesis through precision thermal control and programmed step-cooling.

Why Is Crushed Glass Used As A Sealing Agent During Siliconization? Optimize Your High-Temp Reaction Purity

Learn how crushed glass creates a hermetic, thermally activated seal during siliconization to block contaminants and retain reactive gases.

Why Is A Heating Furnace Required For Thermal Holding Before Hot Extrusion? Optimize Material Flow & Density

Learn why thermal holding is essential for composite extrusion, including reducing deformation resistance and improving microstructural integrity.

What Is The Primary Function Of A Muffle Furnace In The Heat Treatment Of Beryl? Master Gemstone Color Modification

Learn how muffle furnaces use oxidizing atmospheres and iron valence shifts to transform beryl color through precise heat treatment.

How Does A High-Temperature Electric Furnace Contribute To The Melting Process Of Radiation Shielding Glass?

Learn how high-temperature electric furnaces stabilize a 1000°C environment to control viscosity and ensure uniform radiation shielding glass.

What Is The Role Of A Muffle Furnace In The Calcination Of Co@Baal2O4-X Catalyst? Key Steps For Precision Synthesis

Learn how muffle furnaces enable precise thermal transformation, phase conversion, and spatial distribution for Co@BaAl2O4-x catalyst synthesis.

What Roles Do The Electric Muffle Furnace And Gas-Tight Retort Play In Biochar Production? Master Controlled Pyrolysis

Learn how muffle furnaces and gas-tight retorts work together to provide precise heat and oxygen-free environments for high-quality biochar.

What Function Does A Flow-Gas Furnace Serve In Iron Ore Reduction? Mastering Lab Gas Delivery And Thermal Sync

Learn how flow-gas furnaces integrate heating and gas delivery to simulate precise iron ore reduction conditions for laboratory research.

What Are The Applications Of A Laboratory Muffle Furnace In Biochar Evaluation? Optimize Your Biomass Research

Learn how muffle furnaces are used for biochar ashing, carbonization, and predictive fuel analysis of fruit and vegetable waste.

What Process Environment Does A Drop-Tube Furnace System Provide? Expert Simulated Waste Incineration Research

Learn how drop-tube furnaces provide 1500 K temperatures and precise gas mixing to simulate industrial waste incineration and pollutant formation.

What Is The Significance Of High-Temperature Calcination In A Muffle Furnace? Mastering Ce-Tio2 Catalyst Preparation

Learn how high-temperature calcination at 600°C transforms Ce-TiO2 precursors into high-performance catalysts using programmable muffle furnaces.

What Role Does An Industrial-Grade High-Temperature Muffle Furnace Play In The Calcination Of Barium Titanate Powders?

Learn how industrial muffle furnaces drive phase transformation, grain control, and purity in Barium Titanate calcination for piezoelectrics.

What Is The Primary Role Of A High-Temperature Tube Furnace In Ga2O3 Annealing? Optimize Your Thin Film Quality

Learn how tube furnaces drive the amorphous-to-polycrystalline transition in gallium oxide (Ga2O3) to eliminate defects and enhance performance.

What Is The Significance Of An In-Situ High-Temperature Heating Stage? Unlock Real-Time Crystal Structure Insights

Learn how in-situ high-temperature heating stages reveal dynamic phase evolution and sintering paths for cathode materials from RT to 900°C.

How Do Atomizers And Furnaces Function In Spray Pyrolysis? Master Nanoparticle Synthesis

Learn how atomizers and high-temperature furnaces work together in spray pyrolysis to transform liquid precursors into solid nanoparticles.

What Core Technical Conditions Does A High-Temperature Vacuum Resistance Furnace Provide For Molten Steel Infiltration?

Learn how high-temperature vacuum furnaces (1600°C, 5×10⁻⁵ Torr) enable precise molten steel infiltration into tungsten for nuclear applications.

Why Is A Laboratory Box Resistance Furnace Essential For Simulating Long-Term High-Temperature Oxidation Exposure?

Learn how laboratory box resistance furnaces simulate long-term oxidation, oxide scale growth, and material degradation for aerospace components.

What Are The Advantages Of Using An Optical Floating Zone Furnace For Vnbmotaw? Achieve Ultra-High Purity Homogenization

Discover how xenon lamp heating in floating zone furnaces enables 2000°C annealing and BCC phase stability for VNbMoTaW refractory alloys.

Why Do High-Performance Bi-2223 Superconducting Materials Require High-Precision Temperature Control? | Kintek Solution

Learn why Bi-2223 superconductors need high-precision temperature control and 100+ hour heat treatments to achieve peak electrical performance.

Why Is It Necessary To Preheat Casting Molds To 300°C? Expert Thermal Control For Recycled Aluminum Alloy Production

Learn why 300°C mold preheating is vital for recycled aluminum casting, from reducing thermal shock to preventing defects like hot tearing.

What Is The Purpose Of Using A Pid Controller To Drive A Heating Furnace? Master Thermal Kinetics Precision

Learn why PID controllers are vital for hydrogen release experiments, ensuring precise heating rates and stable temperatures for accurate data.

Why Is A Shell Roasting Furnace Used Prior To The Pouring Of C1023 Superalloys? Expert Guide To Casting Integrity

Learn how shell roasting furnaces eliminate contaminants and prevent casting defects in C1023 superalloys by optimizing thermal strength.

What Is The Mechanism Of A Box Muffle Furnace In The Preparation Of Active Magnesium Oxide Powder? Expert Guide

Learn how box muffle furnaces enable precise thermal decomposition at 350°C to create high-reactivity magnesium oxide with optimal surface area.

What Are The Technical Advantages Of Using High-Pressure Nitrogen Quenching? Achieve Precision Heat Treatment

Learn how high-pressure nitrogen quenching eliminates distortion, prevents the vapor film effect, and provides uniform thermal transfer for metals.

What Is The Function Of A High-Precision Resistance Furnace In The Al-Mg-Si Alloy Melting Process? Achieve 750°C Stability

Learn how high-precision resistance furnaces stabilize Al-Mg-Si melting through thermal control, homogenization, and expert chemical balancing.

Why Is A High-Temp Muffle Furnace Required For Graphene Catalyst Calcination? Achieve Precise Phase Transformation

Learn why muffle furnaces are essential for graphene catalyst calcination, from organic decomposition to optimizing surface area and crystallinity.

Why Is A Graphite Shield Essential In Silicon Crystal Growth? Master Thermal And Chemical Purity

Learn how graphite shields and draft tubes regulate argon flow and thermal radiation to ensure high-purity, constant-diameter silicon crystals.