What Critical Environmental Conditions Does A Tube Furnace Provide For Volcanic Rock Thermal Cycling? Expert Guide

Learn how tube furnaces provide uniform thermal fields, precise rate control, and atmospheric isolation for volcanic rock thermal cycling experiments.

What Is The Primary Function Of A High-Temperature Tube Furnace In Naf–Na3Alf6 Molten Salt Experiments? Learn More!

Discover how tube furnaces enable NaF–Na3AlF6 electrolysis by creating stable liquid electrolyte environments through precise temperature control.

What Environmental Conditions Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Provide For Aln Nanofibers? | Kintek

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces provide the 1500°C heat and nitrogen flow required for AlN nanofiber calcination.

Why Is A Furnace With High-Precision Temperature Control Required For Dpkb-S? Ensuring Material Synthesis Accuracy

Learn why precise 250°C thermal control is critical for DPKB-S synthesis to prevent carbonization and maximize active site density.

Why Use Vacuum Muffle Furnaces For Nitrogen-Doped Biochar? Essential Atmosphere Control For Photocatalysis

Learn why vacuum or atmosphere-controlled furnaces are vital for nitrogen-doped biochar to prevent combustion and enable lattice doping.

Why Use A Programmable Tube Furnace For Ni-Wox/Sapo-11 Calcination? Ensure Catalyst Purity & Performance

Learn why nitrogen-controlled tube furnaces are vital for Ni-WOx/SAPO-11 catalyst calcination, ensuring precise oxide phases and acid site formation.

Why Is Precise Temperature Control In A Tubular Furnace Essential For Sio2/C Microspheres? Master Carbonization Success

Learn how precise tubular furnace temperature control manages core shrinkage and shell stability to create hollow SiO2/C microspheres at 800 °C.

Why Are High-Temperature Tube Furnaces Essential For Perovskite Catalysts? Precision Shaping & Crystallization

Learn why tube furnaces are vital for perovskite catalysts, offering 1000°C precision and atmosphere control for perfect crystal phase formation.

Why Is A Tube Furnace With Multiple Zones Required For Mose2 Selenization? Achieve Precision Gradient Control

Learn how multi-zone tube furnaces enable high-quality MoSe2 synthesis by decoupling selenium evaporation from reaction kinetics.

What Role Does A Tube Furnace Play In Producing Activated Carbon? Master Walnut Shell Activation For High Adsorption

Learn how tube furnaces enable precise KOH activation of walnut shells through controlled heating and inert atmospheres to create micropores.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Play In Scsz Thin Film Post-Treatment? Master Structural Refinement

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces optimize ScSZ thin films through grain growth, phase stabilization, and stress relief for better performance.

Why Is 800 °C Necessary For Ncnts? Unlock Superior Conductivity And Ion Transport

Learn why 800 °C annealing is critical for nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes to enhance electronic conductivity and lithium-ion diffusion.

Why Is It Necessary To Pre-Melt Titanium Before Cocrfenizr0.3 Alloys? Essential Purification For Purity

Learn why titanium gettering is vital for CoCrFeNiZr0.3 alloy melting. Discover how it scrubs residual oxygen to ensure material integrity.

How Is The High-Temperature Environment Of A Tube Furnace Used For Adsorbent Regeneration? Achieve Precise Recovery

Learn how tube furnaces utilize controlled 550°C heat and oxygen to regenerate adsorbents while protecting delicate graphene structures.

How Does The Industrial Tube Furnace Contribute To Fe-N-C Catalyst Synthesis? Master High-Temperature Carbonization

Learn how industrial tube furnaces provide the anaerobic environment and thermal precision required to synthesize high-performance Fe-N-C catalysts.

What Is The Significance Of Using A High-Temperature Tube Furnace With Observation Windows? Real-Time Wettability Analysis

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces with observation windows enable real-time droplet monitoring and contact angle measurement for alloy research.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Play In Biomass-Derived Carbon? Unlock Advanced Material Synthesis

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable pyrolysis, chemical activation, and nitrogen-doping to transform biomass into advanced carbon.

What Role Does X-Ray Diffraction (Xrd) Play In Evaluating Zif Thermal Treatment? Master Material Transformation

Learn how XRD validates ZIF crystallinity, monitors carbonization, and analyzes metallic shifts after thermal treatment in a tube furnace.

How Does A Laboratory Tube Furnace Support The Annealing Stage Of Cas:eu2+? Precise Thermal & Atmospheric Control

Learn how tube furnaces enable CaS:Eu2+ synthesis through precise 1050°C temperature control, ramp rates, and reducing atmosphere regulation.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Play In Graphite Recycling? Restoring Purity And Structure

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces purify graphite and restore crystal structure through thermal evaporation and annealing at 900°C.

What Are Advanced Materials And Composites? Unlock Superior Performance For Your Innovations

Learn how advanced materials and composites offer exceptional strength, heat resistance, and conductivity for aerospace, biomedical, and industrial applications.

What Are The Benefits Of Using Vacuum And Controlled Environments In Sintering Furnaces? Achieve Superior Material Quality And Efficiency

Discover how vacuum sintering furnaces prevent oxidation, ensure uniform properties, and boost process control for high-performance materials.

What Are The General Technical Parameters Of A Box-Type Atmosphere Furnace? Key Specs For Precise Heat Treatment

Explore box-type atmosphere furnace parameters like temperature range, control accuracy, and atmosphere systems for reliable material processing in labs and industry.

How Are Atmosphere Furnaces Applied In The Preparation Of Optical Materials? Enhance Clarity And Performance

Learn how atmosphere furnaces enable precise annealing, sintering, and crystal growth for high-quality optical materials with controlled environments.

What Is The Most Common Format For Controlled Atmosphere Continuous Muffle Furnaces? Belt Furnace For High-Throughput Processing

Discover the belt furnace's role in controlled atmosphere continuous muffle furnaces for high-volume, automated thermal processing with precise atmosphere control.

What Advantages Do Vacuum And Modified Atmosphere Furnaces Offer For Sintering In 3D Printing? Achieve Dense, High-Performance Parts

Discover how vacuum and modified atmosphere furnaces enable precise sintering for 3D printing, ensuring oxidation-free, uniform heating and advanced material properties.

How Is A Box Furnace Used In Sintering Of Metal Powders? Achieve Dense, High-Strength Metal Parts

Learn how box furnaces enable precise sintering of metal powders with controlled temperature and atmosphere for oxidation-free, strong components.

What Is A Program-Controlled Atmosphere Furnace? Master Precise Heat Treatment For Advanced Materials

Learn how program-controlled atmosphere furnaces automate temperature and gas control to prevent oxidation and enable reactive processes in material science.

Why Is A Reactive Atmosphere Sometimes Required In Heat Treatment? Achieve Superior Surface Hardness And Durability

Discover how reactive atmospheres in heat treatment enhance surface properties like hardness and wear resistance for metals, improving component performance and longevity.

How Does Precise Heating Rate Control Affect Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Synthesis? Master Thermal Ramp For Quality Materials

Learn how precise heating rate control in furnaces optimizes nitrogen fixation, pore structure, and yield in waste-derived carbon materials.

How Does High-Temperature Annealing In A Tube Furnace Influence The Performance Of The Rucucl/Nf-2 Catalyst?

Learn how tube furnace annealing at 300°C optimizes RuCuCl/NF-2 catalysts through atomic substitution, lattice distortion, and charge distribution.

What Critical Process Conditions Does A Tube Atmosphere Furnace Provide? Key Factors For Fe-Zif-8 Transformation

Learn how 500°C thermal precision and air oxidation in a tube furnace transform Fe-ZIF-8 into high-performance Fe3O4/ZnO heterostructures.

How Does Oxygen Atmosphere Treatment In A Tube Furnace Affect Titania Nanotubes? Optimize Your Nanostructure Performance

Learn why rich oxygen annealing in tube furnaces creates thick oxide barriers that hinder electron flow in titania nanotubes.

What Is The Significance Of Applying Full Displacement Constraints At Fixed Entry Points? Ensure Thermal Accuracy

Learn why full displacement constraints are vital for simulating thermal expansion, predicting movement, and preventing structural risks in tubes.

Why Is Controlling The Residence Time Within A Tube Furnace Critical For The Synthesis Of Amorphous Nife2O4 Catalysts?

Learn how controlling residence time in tube furnaces prevents crystallization and preserves active O-H bonds for superior NiFe2O4 catalysts.

How Does An Industrial Tube Furnace Facilitate The Pack Cementation Process? Master Precision Diffusion Coatings

Learn how industrial tube furnaces provide the thermal stability and energy required for pack cementation and aluminide diffusion coatings.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Play In The Solid-State Synthesis Of Lib Cathode Materials? Key Insights

Discover how tube furnaces enable precise lithium intercalation and phase transformation to produce high-purity battery cathode materials.

What Is The Function Of A High-Temperature Tube Furnace? Master High-Entropy Metal Phosphide Synthesis

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable single-step HEP/C synthesis through controlled pyrolysis and precise inert atmospheres.

How Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Facilitate The Pyrolysis Stage In Fenc Catalysts? Precision Thermal Processing

Learn how tube furnaces enable FeNC catalyst pyrolysis through nitrogen protection, volatile purging, and precise coordination of Fe-Nx sites.

What Is The Purpose Of A Chemically Reactive Atmosphere In Material Processing? Achieve Precise Surface Modification For Enhanced Performance

Learn how chemically reactive atmospheres in material processing enable targeted surface hardening, corrosion resistance, and sintering for superior material properties.

What Process Conditions Does A Tube Furnace Provide For Au-Ni-Tio2 Nanowires? Master 1000°C Vls Synthesis

Learn how a high-temperature tube furnace enables Au-Ni-TiO2 nanowire growth through 1000°C thermal stability and the VLS mechanism.

How Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Facilitate Sulfur Melt-Diffusion? Precision Heating For Pcfc/S Cathodes

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces optimize sulfur melt-diffusion into PCFC carriers to suppress the shuttle effect in Li-S batteries.

What Makes Vacuum Tube Furnaces Stand Out In Terms Of Equipment Diversification? Discover Their Modular Design & Precision Control

Explore how vacuum tube furnaces offer equipment diversification through modular design, precise atmosphere control, and advanced thermal profiling for material processing.

Why Is The Cooling System Important In The Furnace? Ensure Longevity, Efficiency, And Safety

Learn how furnace cooling systems protect components, boost efficiency, and prevent failures. Essential for reliable high-temperature operations.

What Types Of Materials And Processes Are Augmented By Specialized Vacuum Furnace Designs? Enhance Purity And Performance

Discover how vacuum furnaces enable high-purity processing for reactive metals, ceramics, and advanced coatings via CVD, sintering, and more.

What Is A Vacuum Atmosphere Furnace? Master High-Purity Heat Treatment For Superior Materials

Learn how vacuum atmosphere furnaces remove air and control gases for contamination-free material processing, ideal for labs needing precise heat treatment.

What Are The Structural Design Features Of An Atmosphere Tube Furnace? Optimize Your Thermal Processing With Precision

Explore key structural features of atmosphere tube furnaces, including process tubes, heating elements, and control systems for uniform temperature and gas environments.

What Non-Ferrous Metals Can Be Treated Using Vacuum Heat Treatment? Protect Reactive Metals From Oxidation

Learn how vacuum heat treatment preserves titanium, aluminum, and copper alloys by preventing oxidation and contamination for superior surface finish and properties.

What Is The Significance Of Purification And Degassing In High-Temperature Vacuum Furnaces? Achieve Superior Material Purity And Performance

Learn how purification and degassing in vacuum furnaces enhance material purity, strength, and reliability for aerospace, medical, and electronics industries.

What Is The Primary Use Of A Vacuum Hydrogen Dual-Purpose Furnace? Essential For Diamond Synthesis And High-Performance Sintering

Learn how vacuum hydrogen furnaces enable ultra-clean sintering for synthetic diamonds and composites, ensuring purity and strength in industrial applications.

What Are The Key Benefits Of Vacuum Furnace Technology? Achieve Superior Material Quality And Consistency

Discover how vacuum furnace technology prevents oxidation, ensures precise temperature control, and delivers repeatable results for high-value materials in industries like aerospace and medical.

What Is An Atmosphere Box Furnace And What Are Its Primary Uses? Essential For Controlled Heat Processing

Learn how atmosphere box furnaces prevent oxidation and enable precise material processing in metallurgy, electronics, and research applications.

What Components Make Up The Atmosphere Control System Of The Box Type Annealing Atmosphere Furnace? Discover Key Parts For Precise Heat Treatment

Learn about the gas source, flow meter, regulating valve, and furnace body in annealing furnace atmosphere control systems for oxidation prevention and process consistency.

Why Is Tube Furnace Temperature Control Critical For Anhydrous Rare Earth Halide Powders? Achieve Precise Synthesis

Discover why precise thermal regulation in tube furnaces is vital for synthesizing rare earth halides while avoiding impurities and sublimation.

What Critical Reaction Conditions Does A Tube Furnace Provide During The Synthesis Of Sfc5 Materials?

Learn how tube furnaces provide nitrogen-protected atmospheres and 500°C thermal management essential for SFC5 material synthesis and carbonization.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Play In Flash Annealing Mg/Siox? Precision For Advanced Anode Synthesis

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable flash annealing at 1100°C to create silicate buffer matrices for high-performance Mg/SiOx anodes.

What Core Environmental Conditions Does An Industrial High-Temperature Tube Furnace Provide For Ta4Alc3 Synthesis?

Discover how high-purity argon and 1500°C thermal stability in a tube furnace enable successful Ta4AlC3 MAX phase synthesis without oxidation.

What Physical Conditions Does A Dual-Zone Tube Furnace Provide For Cvt? Master Precision Thermal Gradient Control

Learn how dual-zone tube furnaces create the precise temperature gradients and vacuum environments required for high-quality magnetic crystal growth.

What Physical Conditions Does A Vertical Tube Furnace Provide For Desulfurization Experiments? Precision Heat Control

Learn how vertical tube furnaces provide critical thermal stability (140-260 °C) for desulfurization and denitrification catalytic oxidation.

Why Is Environmental Control In A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Necessary During Nvp/C Synthesis? Key To Success

Learn how precise atmosphere and temperature control in tube furnaces prevent Vanadium oxidation and enhance NVP/C conductivity.

How Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Contribute To The Pore Regulation Of Carbon Nanofibers? Precision Engineering

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable precise pore regulation in carbon nanofibers through temperature control and inert atmospheres.

Why Is An Industrial-Grade High-Temperature Tube Furnace Used For Tio2Nw? Optimize Nanowire Annealing

Learn why high-temperature tube furnaces are essential for TiO2NW production, from enhancing crystallinity to ensuring phase stability at 700 °C.

Why Is A Tube Furnace With Argon Required For Ti3Alc2 Sintering? Protect Your High-Purity Max Phase Synthesis

Learn why Ti3AlC2 synthesis requires a 1600°C tube furnace and high-purity argon to prevent oxidation and ensure correct MAX phase lattice formation.

What Is The Role Of A Tube Furnace In Carbonization? Mastering Precision Control For Structured Carbon Materials

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable precision carbonization through atmosphere control, uniform heating, and molecular reorganization.

Why Is A Secondary High-Temperature Activation In A Tubular Furnace Required? Unlock Peak Catalyst Performance

Learn how secondary high-temperature activation transforms metal precursors into stable oxides to maximize catalyst activity and durability.

Why Is A Sealed Environment Important In A Controlled Atmosphere Furnace? Ensure Precision And Safety In High-Temp Processes

Learn how a sealed furnace prevents oxidation, ensures process consistency, and enhances safety for reliable high-temperature applications.

What Are The Main Components Of An Atmosphere Tube Furnace? Unlock Precision In Material Processing

Learn the 5 key components of an atmosphere tube furnace for precise temperature and gas control in labs. Essential for material synthesis and heat treatment.

What Is The Primary Purpose Of Using Induction Furnaces Under Vacuum Or Protective Atmospheres? Achieve Purity And Performance In High-Performance Alloys

Learn how vacuum and protective atmospheres in induction furnaces prevent contamination, ensuring superior material purity and mechanical properties for alloys.

How Does A Controlled Atmosphere Furnace Contribute To Energy Efficiency? Lower Costs With Advanced Thermal Management

Discover how controlled atmosphere furnaces reduce energy waste through superior insulation, precise controls, and uniform heating for lower operational costs.

What Provides Inert Atmosphere For High-Temperature Metallurgical Process? Prevent Oxidation With Argon & More

Discover the best gases for inert atmospheres in high-temperature metallurgy, including Argon and Hydrogen mixtures, to prevent oxidation and ensure product integrity.

What Industries Commonly Use Argon For Heat Treatment? Essential For Aerospace And High-Performance Alloys

Discover how argon's inert properties protect materials in aerospace, high-performance alloys, and advanced manufacturing during heat treatment processes.

What Is The Structure Of A Protective Atmosphere Box Furnace? Unlock Precise Heat Treatment With Controlled Environments

Explore the core systems of a protective atmosphere box furnace, including structural framework, heating, atmosphere management, sealing, and control for oxidation-free processing.

How Are Retort Furnaces Used In The Aerospace Industry? Essential For High-Temperature Heat Treatment

Explore how retort furnaces ensure material purity and precise atmosphere control in aerospace for titanium alloys, stainless steel, and carbon composites.

What Is The Function Of A Retort Furnace? Achieve Precise Atmosphere Control For Material Processing

Discover how retort furnaces enable sealed heating with controlled atmospheres for carburizing, nitriding, and annealing in industrial applications.

Why Is A Tube Furnace Equipped With An Atmosphere Control System Required For Synthesizing H-Zn-Co-O Solid Solutions?

Learn why oxygen-free environments and precise gas control in tube furnaces are essential for stabilizing the hexagonal phase of h-Zn-Co-O.

How Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Facilitate The Preparation Of Activated Straw Char? Expert Processing Tips

Learn how tube furnaces enable straw char activation through inert atmospheres, precise 600°C thermal control, and pore structure development.

Why Is A Vacuum Tube Furnace Required For (Si/Graphite/Graphene)@C Composite? Ensure Optimal High-Temp Performance

Learn why vacuum tube furnaces are essential for (Si/graphite/graphene)@C composites to prevent oxidation and ensure precise carbonization.

What Is The Primary Function Of A High-Temperature Tube Furnace In Two-Stage Pyrolysis? Precision Thermal Control

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable two-stage biomass pyrolysis through controlled carbonization, activation, and atomic-level doping.

Why Is A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Essential For Ppac Activation? Precision Thermal Control For Superior Porosity

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable the activation of pomelo peel-based carbon through atmospheric isolation and precise heating.

What Critical Role Does A Tube Furnace Play In The Final Stage Of Catalyst Preparation For Feox@Kcc-1? Expert Insights

Learn how tube furnaces enable phase transformation, atmosphere switching, and nanoparticle anchoring in FeOx@KCC-1 catalyst preparation.

How Does An Atmosphere Protection Furnace Ensure The Quality Of Cocrfenimn Coatings? Optimized Heat Treatment Solutions

Learn how atmosphere protection furnaces use high-purity argon to prevent oxidation and strengthen CoCrFeNiMn coatings during heat treatment.

How Is A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Utilized In The Synthesis Of Moo2/Mwcnts Nanocomposites? Precision Guide

Learn how tube furnaces use 900 °C reduction and H2/Ar atmospheres to synthesize high-crystallinity MoO2/MWCNTs nanocomposites.

How Does A Tubular Furnace Contribute To The Conversion Of Co-Fe-Zif Precursors Into Co-Fe-Nc Catalysts?

Learn how tubular furnaces enable precise pyrolysis and nitrogen doping at 700°C to transform Co-Fe-ZIF precursors into high-performance catalysts.

What Is The Mechanism Of A High-Temperature Furnace In Bi-2223 Sintering? Achieve Precision Phase Transformation

Learn how high-temp furnaces enable critical phase transformation, grain growth, and densification for high-performance Bi-2223 superconductors.

What Is The Primary Function Of A Tube Furnace For Rebco Tapes? Find Critical 175°C Thresholds

Learn how tube furnaces determine the annealing temperature threshold for REBCO superconducting tapes by testing thermal and atmospheric stability.

Why Is A Laboratory Chamber With A Controlled Atmosphere Necessary For The Laser Reduction Of Graphene Oxide (Rgo)?

Learn how controlled atmospheres enable heteroatom doping and precise band structure tuning during rGO laser reduction for advanced biosensing.

Why Is A Tube Furnace With Precise Temperature Control Critical For The Preparation Of Palladium Borosulfates?

Master Palladium Borosulfate synthesis with precise tube furnace control. Learn why 90-hour cooling cycles and PID accuracy are vital for success.

Why Are Ceramic Containers With Refractory Clay Seals Utilized During The Non-Oxidative Sintering Of Nickel Composites?

Learn how ceramic containers and refractory clay seals prevent nickel oxidation by creating an inert micro-environment during high-temp sintering.

How Does A Tube Furnace Differ From Hpht Methods For Fe2B-Hs? Compare Diffusion And Structural Integrity

Learn how tube furnace atmospheric sintering creates defect-free Fe2B-HS crystals through unrestricted diffusion vs. high-pressure methods.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Play In Polo Contact Structures? Unlock High-Efficiency Silicon Contacts

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces enable POLO contact formation through precise thermal crystallization and dopant diffusion at 850°C-925°C.

What Role Does A Tube Furnace Play In The Physical Synthesis Of Metal Nanoparticles? Master Phase Transformation

Learn how tube furnaces drive physical vapor condensation, providing precise thermal control for high-purity metal nanoparticle synthesis.

Why Is A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Used For Long-Term Annealing Of Crmnfeconi Alloys? Achieve Chemical Homogeneity

Learn how high-temperature tube furnaces eliminate dendrite segregation in CrMnFeCoNi alloys via 1100°C annealing to prepare for laser remelting.

What Is The Function Of A Double-Temperature Zone Tube Furnace In Cvd Synthesis Of 2D Epsilon-Fe2O3 Nanosheets?

Learn how dual-zone tube furnaces enable independent thermal regulation to decouple precursor evaporation from nucleation for 2D nanosheet growth.

What Are The Primary Functions Of A Precision Gas Filtration Device? Maximize Data Integrity In Drop Tube Furnaces

Learn how precision gas filtration devices ensure 100% sample recovery, accurate mass balance, and lab safety in drop tube furnace experiments.

How Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Facilitate The Conversion Of Cu@Zif-8? Master Precision Material Synthesis

Learn how tube furnaces drive the pyrolysis and reduction of Cu@ZIF-8 into Cu@Zn-NC through precise temperature and atmospheric control.

What Are The Technical Advantages Of Using A High-Precision Atmosphere Tube Furnace? Master Sensitive Ceramic Sintering

Learn how high-precision atmosphere tube furnaces prevent oxidation and regulate oxygen vacancies for superior sensitive ceramic sintering results.

What Is The Necessity Of The 500 °C Hydrogen Environment Provided By A Tube Reduction Furnace? Master Catalyst Activation

Learn why a 500 °C hydrogen environment is essential for converting Pd/Al2O3 precursors into high-performance metallic nanoparticles.

Why Is A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Used For Alpo4 Calcination? Ensure Safety In Molten Salt Electrolysis

Learn why 1000°C calcination in a tube furnace is essential to remove chemically bonded water from AlPO4 and prevent electrolyte hydrolysis.

What Role Does A High-Temperature Tube Furnace Play In The Post-Processing Of High-Entropy Alloys? Optimize Microstructure

Discover how tube furnaces enable homogenization and oxidation testing for high-entropy alloys through precise thermal and atmospheric control.

How Does A Dual-Temperature Zone Tube Furnace Control Crystal Quality? Master Pvt For Organic Single Crystals

Learn how dual-zone tube furnaces regulate thermal gradients and carrier gas to produce high-performance, low-defect organic single crystals.